Housing Crisis and Possible Future

 

 

 

 

    The rising tide of awareness of the housing crisis is not without warrant, there is a growing level of houselessness plus ever-growing research about the best methods to handle housing shortages. According to CNBC (“America is short more than 5 million homes, and builders can’t make up the difference” Olick), America has over 5 million single-family houses less than needed. This is not due to a lack of demand for housing, but rather, as Bokat-Lindell proposes in a NY Times article, a conflict between those in a position to continue making money from property and those who are trying to build more. 

    With rising housing prices, the gap is furthering between those capable of obtaining property and those who are experiencing the consequences of a lack of action. This brings up the importance of policies and implementations of eviction bans and affordable pricing in whatever plan or policy that would be enacted to aid houselessness. Studies have looked at rent increases across the world and the US continues to see the highest percentage raises of rent, even when compared with one of the most population-dense cities in the world (Tokyo). Such increases only worsen the housing crisis that the US sees itself in now, a rather horrifying loop of unavailability and unaffordability. 

    While the arguability for what exactly started the housing crisis is significant, and many could probably argue the cause of the continuation of it, the point remains that it exists. There are several projects pushing for a solution or aid to the crisis, some are pushing for more housing (with several taking into account the climate crisis and arguing for sustainable housing being our only construction from here on out) and other programs are pushing for tenant aid in the face of a lack of buyable property. Both are extremely important in the long run, as renting will never go extinct, but there are also not enough houses on the market that everyone can afford.

 

Begin here to learn a bit more about the arguments for and against building more houses -click here->

Take a glance at the overview of what may be going on with America’s housing crisis -click here->

 

The housing crisis does not simply start at a lack of houses and a lack of affordability. Some of those who were able to witness the housing bubble in 2007 are beginning to worry, but not everyone has the same opinion. Isidore writes in a CNN article that there are patterns of what occurred with housing predictions in 2005 and what is occurring now, including many contradicting studies and opinions regarding whether America is in for another housing bubble. 

One expert even has the opinion that our current housing increases are higher than what we may need, a clear contradiction with what many articles and studies have been noticing (as briefly summarized above). One of the particularly saddening statistics is that the year-by-year increases in housing costs increased to 19.9%, a clear and significant increase compared to the 14.4% in 2005. The housing crisis has already begun a massive swell that has caused worry, yet there are still the continued patterns of optimism that the housing economy in America will level out and stabilize.

Whether there is a housing bubble in the near future is practically impossible to accurately predict, the signs that are already present are worrying enough to warrant a call to action. Manual input must occur for there to be the hope of stability as well as fair housing for everyone, but how it will be handled remains to be seen.

  

Isidore’s CNN article, summarizing the current opinions of a housing bubble -click here->

Experts believe the housing situation is a good increase, rather than a bubble

-click here->

 

 

    RentWell

    Transition Projects

    For COVID-19 related renting assistance (Oregon specifically):

    Veteran-focused shelters and long term housing programs (creators of header image)

 

 

Houseless Shelter Increase

One of the reasons we see so many houseless individuals all over the community on the streets, in parks, random parking lots of commercial spaces, is because there isn’t adequate space available for them to spend the night. 

According to this link, Project Homeless Connect has partnered with the city of Hillsboro to open an emergency shelter to provide a safe space to sleep and have a daily meal for up to 35 individuals. The situation of the pandemic has increased the prevalence of homelessness and impacted every day people to be put into a houseless situation. With more emergency shelters such as this, we can make an impact to better treat the homeless and provide a clean and safe community for all. 

To learn more about this project click here. 

 

Seeing Houselessness

 

            The perception of the houseless population within Portland
and other major cities within the US can be seen in a lot of ways. Depending on
outlooks, and your political leanings, it can be seen as a group of people too lazy to get a job,
which is beyond a doubt extremely regressive, and the other is with a distant empathy. But not
willing enough to do anything about it yet complain that something must be done. Often
the conversation around the houseless population tends to revolve around these subjects.
But what I feel often is missed is the human aspect of the dialog. The conversation sometimes seems to
forget that what is sleeping on the streets are people. These people living on the streets all have
different varying stories that have all led them down to this point. Just like everyone else trying to
make it day by day. But in the end, whose job is it to take care of these people?

            What is at fault here? In a system that says everyone
has the freedoms to live liberty and the pursuit of happiness, it sure does feel like those who are
suffering economically hurt keep hurting and seemingly can never get out of their position unless
they get the help that they need. It pains me to see, as I walk down the streets of Portland, tents of
all shapes and sizes scattered around the grounds. It is a sad thing that this has become a norm for the
US. Extreme disparity between the wealthy and the poor has nearly always been a running theme in
US history. But there seems to be a sense of numbness to the issue, that it is the way things are.
Sure political movements are strong today, however with many companies nowadays sinking
millions of dollars into making sure unions aren’t formed. With tactics such as propaganda to
the workforce about unions and dividing up those who are pushing for unions.

If you like to learn more about these tactics click here, and learn from Jobs With Justice.
An organization that is all about providing information about giving unions power.

-Gavin Stockwell

https://pixabay.com/photos/hands-team-united-together-people-1917895

 

 

 

Hate Crimes Against the Homeless

 Members of the homeless community, despite already facing more adversity and challenges than the rest of us, are also more likely to become the victims of violent hate crimes. A 2018 survey of reported violent incidents against homeless people was conducted by the National Coalition for the Homeless, finding that out of 1,769 incidents, 476 victims lost their lives. The NCH stated that while some of the violent crimes were simply opportunistic because of the victim’s inability to escape public areas, most of them were actual targeted hate crimes committed specifically because of a bias against the victims’ housing status or lack thereof. Violence against the homeless comes in many different forms, and the NCH specifically found incidents of murders, beatings, rapes, and mutilations. The primary target of this violence was middle-aged men, with 70 percent of victims being over 40 while 87 percent were male. Unsurprisingly, perpetrators tended to be males as well, though interestingly they were typically under the age of 30. The NCH also notes that they estimate the actual number of  bias-motivated violent incidents to be much higher than the numbers present, because this type of violence in particular is likely to go unreported. 

One thing that is shockingly clear from the NCH report is the fact that homeless people are not only more vulnerable to violent attacks, but they are also more likely to encounter them based specifically on biases held against them by members of the public. The dehumanization and denial of basic human rights that homeless people go through everyday have caused them to become overlooked as members of our society, and it has bred ignorance and hate in some of the more fortunate, fully-housed parts of the public who look down on them. For that reason, it is important to be cognizant of the violence and perils that they face as a marginalized group who already have few opportunities to speak up for themselves. 

To read the NCH report in more detail, click here, and to see even more data and read the NCH’s response, check out this link.

The Effect of a Criminal Conviction on Housing Accessibility

Past criminal history including criminal convictions can play a major role in an individual’s life. It can affect job opportunities, mental health and access to housing. What might not be so obvious is that individuals who were previously incarcerated are ten times more likely to be unhoused than the general public. Without access to housing, the other problems that folks with criminal history face are exacerbated. For example, without a place to get ready or relax, barriers are created when it comes to interviewing for jobs. It also leads to food insecurity without a place to store or prepare food, and there is no place to keep belongings. Being housed is a basic human right and that right is being held from folks with convictions in many different ways.

First, most landlords require background checks as part of their application process. Many refuse to rent to those living with records and that limits options for housing. This also means that they will have to apply to more places to increase their chance of being accepted, which can result in a large sum of application fees needing to be paid. Far more than the average applicant. This also means that folks with convictions accept unsafe housing when it is the only option left.

Code for America states that, “Housing is one of the most important aspects of reintegration and recovery. Without it, folks living with records can’t move forward with their lives.” In order to help those with convictions it is important for them to be given the opportunity to successfully maintain housing. If they are immediately turned away from housing, they might not ever be given the opportunity to reintegrate into society.

Learn more at Code for America

Resources for Renting with Criminal History

https://rentberry.com/blog/criminal-background-renting

https://rentwell.org/tenants/

Homelessness and the Climate Crisis

Photo Credit —Marella Moon Albanese / NBC News

The climate crisis is one of the most pressing issues in our lifetime. If you’re reading this you’ve probably experienced the effects of climate change over the past couple of years through rising temperatures in the summer, decreased air quality from forest fires and air pollution, an increase in rainfall in winter months and so much more. What do you do to escape these conditions? Bundle up and carry an umbrella? Blast the air conditioning in your home when temperatures reach the triple digits? Stay inside when the air is harmful? Regardless of how you combat these changes, it is important to recognize the options that you have and resources that are available to you. How different would your life be without those resources?

Climate change is becoming an increasingly dangerous phenomenon for humankind and those who are homeless are far more vulnerable to its effects. Without respite from the hot sun or access to clean drinking water, rising temperatures can cause heat stress and heat stroke or even contribute to deaths among those without shelter. The exposure to poor air quality can cause respiratory issues and drops in temperature can lead to hypothermia. Aside from the exacerbation of problems that those without shelter face, climate change is actually contributing to the homeless population through the destruction caused by natural disasters. Floods, hurricanes, heatwaves, droughts and fires can destroy homes, neighborhoods, and even entire cities. Not to mention that this is all happening while we are facing an affordable-housing crisis.

What can be done? Educate yourself on the climate crisis. Donate to food banks and housing shelters. Vote for local representatives who care about these issues. Volunteer. Whether the action is big or small, it is an acknowledgement of the issue and it will lead to change.

Resources

Article Reference

Information on the Climate Crisis

Register to Vote

Where to Donate and Volunteer in Portland

Changing the Fate of the Housing Crisis

 If you live in Oregon, you have probably thrown your hands in the air and said "What is the use of trying to buy a home!" You are not alone. Although it seems like the housing crisis is only getting worse in Oregon, there a many people fighting for your right for affordable housing. Among those devoting themselves to finding solutions for Oregon's housing problems, the people at housingoregon.org go above and beyond to find ways of working with the government on our behalf. 

The website housingoregon.org has three goals: 

"1. Change local rules and policies to make it easier for more housing to be built

 2. Get governments to invest more money to build housing for our most vulnerable community member- seniors, people experiencing homelessness, and people with disabilities. 

 3. Encourage innovation to think outside the box for ways to house people in safe and healthy homes."

To see all the great ways that housingoregon.org is advocating for your housing rights, click here. You can also get involved, become a member, or donate! When all hope feels lost, just remember that there are people and organizations fighting for your right to get housing! 

Will Portland’s Efforts Be Enough?!

    

Like many metropolitan areas, Portland Oregon is faced with a visibility crisis regarding the homeless. 

There has been no official count of the homeless in Portland since 2019 so it is difficult to connect the visibility of the homeless to an actual increase of these populations. 

This visibility crisis may actually be connected to a different trend. According to hungercenter.org homeless populations decreased from 2007 to 2019 but unsheltered homelessness within the community rose by nearly 25%.

It’s not so much that there is a greater homeless population but that a larger proportion of this population goes unsheltered, therefore occupying more public spaces.

For the city, there are generally TWO broad ways of solving this homelessness problem.

Short-term solutions through emergency shelters, and offering immediate assistance to the homeless helping them survive.

Long-term solutions that focus more on permanent housing and ensuring people can not only find but keep a home.

The city of Portland has branded themselves as prioritizing the Housing First model which focuses on these long-term solutions. However as Rebecca Ellis laid, the city of Portland and Multnomah county have been at odds over the best way to address homelessness. The city, prioritizing getting people into shelters and the county, favoring slower, long term proposals to keep people off the street for good.

A complex issue like the housing crisis doesn’t have one correct solution, it requires a multi-faceted plan that addresses many areas of the problem.

Luckily, in large part to a significant business income tax surplus (thanks to the pandemic) Portland, Multnomah county agreed on a $38 million package for homeless services. The unique thing about this package is it focuses on BOTH short and long term solutions. Half of which will be used for homeless services like trash pickup and new shelter beds. 

This is on top of the already $150 million allotted for homeless services for the current fiscal year from the joint office of the city and county.

However Portland Mayor Ted Wheeler, pleads that without necessary supplementary aid from the federal government these efforts may not fully materialize. Acknowledging that the city-county package contains “a lot of good things”, Portland city Mayor, Ted Wheeler implores the federal government for necessary support in helping solve the region’s homeless crisis.

Will Wheeler and the city of Portland get the help from the federal government that they so desperately need, or will many of these efforts be all for not if these drastic measures are not taken?

Portlands Rising Rent Costs

 

Before the pandemic, Portlanders were already struggling with the increase of not only population but also the rising rent due to population increase. Portlanders were struggling to stay afloat and meet their monthly rent. Now imagine, mixing this situation with a global pandemic. People were and are out of work for a year plus, struggling even more to meet their monthly payments. With Coivd-19 Things were only magnified. The increase of people continuing to move to Portland even during a pandemic has continued to raise the rent rate.

According to news source Koin 6, more than 11,000 Oregon households are at risk of eviction. During the pandemic Oregon has implemented an Emergency Rent Assistance program. The aim is to help Oregonians pay their rent that is past due, due to the pandemic. Per the rental assistance website, if one is approved for the Emergency Rental Program, they will aim to cover 12 months of past due rent and three months of forward rent. As the deadline for rental assistance in Oregon approaches, only about 43% of the applications that have been submitted have been paid. You may be asking yourself why that is? Well Backlogging. Not only are most companies still following covid protocols, but there is also lack of staffing, as well as supply chain shortages. Mainly, businesses lack the appropriate staffing they need to run their facility.

While people are slowly starting to get back to a “normal life” with covid many are still worried about the repercussions of the illness. They do not want to expose themselves or family members to the virus. Some are even immune compromised and are not willing to risk possibly killing a family member over working an 8-hour retail job with the public. While many people who have been working through the pandemic, myself included, are tired with the way major corporations have been treating their workers. Many people do not want to work for minimum wage at a retail job, that will hardly make their rent payments. According to the World Population Review, unemployment benefits range from 235 to 823 dollars a week. Unemployment pays more than a minimum wage retail job. Why would people want to go back to work to make less, when they are at more of a risk at not meeting their rent. Doesn’t that seem backwards? Shouldn’t our paychecks allow us to make our rent and not have to choose to struggle to live?

With the continuous rise of influx of people moving to Portland, rent will only continue to rise. We need to pay our workers more, have a living wage that meets the cost of living. Corporate America needs to change. We need to continue to voice our opinions, protest peacefully, and demand better wages.

If you would like to know more about Oregon's Rental Assistance Program click here. If you would also like to know more about how you can help the houseless click here.

Works Cited:

Koin 6

World Population View

211info.org

 

Give the gift of Charity this Holiday Season

211info is a community-based nonprofit organization funded by state and municipal contracts, foundations, United Ways, donations and community partners in Oregon and Southwest Washington. 

It empowers communities by helping people identify, navigate and connect with the local resources they need. They provide assessment services for homeless families in Multnomah County.

       Child Care & Parenting Contact Center Coordination Center Emergency Management Food  Health Housing & ShelterMoney, Debt, & Taxes Resource Department Utility Assistance Donations & Volunteering

Winter & Severe Weather Shelters

    211 started out as a nonprofit contact center in 1980. Originally it was a crisis line, and has transformed into a service providing callers with referrals to basic needs programs such as food, shelter, health care and more. They provide services in all of the areas listed above. 
    Housing and shelter assistance can be easily accessible through 211info. They partner with Coordinated Entry, Family Shelter Access, and Rent Well. The resources that can be provided to those in need is just a phone call away. Keeping those less fortunate in mind is necessary, especially now.   Gathering as much information about these types of services and available outreach is really useful knowledge to have. 
    These programs are life saving, and need our support. Don't have the time, but you want to help promote equity and help make a difference. Service through donation during the holidays is one way to give back. Struggling to think of gift ideas, give a donation under a family member or friend's name. This is a one of a kind opportunity to give the true spirit of the season to another this holiday. Start Holiday Donations today!

Anti-homeless Architecture

 

For homeless people, finding a dry, unused spot to sit or lay for a few hours can be the only opportunity to get some rest. Aside from homeless shelters which fill up quickly and are usually overcrowded, there are few options for those living on the streets as it is. Still, some property owners and city planning committees have begun utilizing new strategies to push the homeless away from the areas that they tend to use most.

Often referred to as “hostile architecture” or “defensive design,” many cities have begun to see an increase in layout and landscaping designed specifically to restrict and exclude certain uses or groups of people from public spaces. One of the most common uses for this type of design is to deny loitering or even just general use by the homeless. In many cases, hostile architecture is intentionally designed to blend-in and be unnoticed by those who are unaffected by it, but chances are you have personally witnessed many examples of it in public spaces whether you knew it’s true purpose at the time or not. There are all sorts of different strategies used to make areas unusable to the homeless, from strategically placed planters and boulders to literal bars and spikes sectioning areas off and making it impossible to lay down comfortably.

The biggest problem with this sort of design is that it doesn’t generally benefit anyone. Hostile architecture is a band-aid solution for property owners and urban planners to push the homeless out of sight, but it doesn’t actually do anything to decrease the homeless population. Further, most of the strategies used actually make the spaces less convenient for regular use as well, ultimately creating an uninviting atmosphere and environment. For example, one of the most common uses of hostile architecture to dissuade usage by the homeless are bars or “armrests” retrofitted onto park benches so that it’s impossible to lay across the whole bench and get some rest. More hostile examples include gaps between walls and awnings so that rain can pour onto the areas a homeless person might sleep, or even spikes installed directly into the ground so that they can’t sit or lay in the area. There are countless strategies employed by users of hostile architecture to “solve” the problem of homeless loitering, but at the end of the day, none of them are actually solving anything; they’re just hoping to push it out of view so that they don’t have to think about it. This practice should be considered both inhumane and wasteful. Using funding and resources to intentionally make homeless people’s lives even more difficult, rather than to help lift them out of their difficult situation is counterproductive to improving the human condition.

 To see more examples of hostile design strategies and read more about the topic, click here.

Food for Thought: Food Insecurity in the Land of Waist

As the housing crisis increases the cost of living and in turn the rate of homelessness in Oregon, food insecurity also increases. Food insecurity is a bland euphemism for a critical problem. According to Oregon’s Hunger Task Force, 1 in 4 Oregonians are food insecure, a problem that is especially prevalent among Portland's large homeless community. The Unites States Department of Agriculture defines food insecurity as a lack of consistent access to enough food required to achieve a healthy life.

Because most homeless individuals lack access to safe food storage, they rely mostly on nonperishable options. Often these items are high in fat, low in fiber, and lack the required daily nutrients. According to the National Health Care for the Homeless Council, the meals received at shelters are not much healthier, as most donations are nonperishable, many homeless are left to struggle with malnutrition. It might seem homeless individuals would be at risk of being underweight, after all, we see stereotypes portrayed in media of severely thin and emaciated individuals. However, because of a limited access to healthy food and an increased reliance on cheap foods; homeless are at a high risk of obesity and related comorbidity. A study conducted by Harvard University found that 57% of chronically homeless adults were malnourished leading to obesity. 

According to the American Medical Association Obesity is associated with an approximately 25% increased risk for mental health disorders. Furthermore, Research conducted by BioMed Central, indicates that individuals experiencing food insecurity are far more likely to suffer from adverse mental health. Food insecure individuals are 257 percent more likely to suffer anxiety, and 253 percent more likely to face depression. Multnomah County's 2019 Point-in-time count of Homelessness study found that 38.5% of people experiencing homelessness are suffering from mental illness, and 37.5% from substance abuse disorders largely due to severe depression. 

According to KGW, Portland's struggle with mental illness among homeless creates concern for rising crime and violence in neighborhoods with the largest prevalence of homeless individuals. These higher levels of crime cause concern among sheltered residents resulting in police sweeps of homeless camps further displacing homeless individuals.

Americans waist $218 billion of perfectly edible food each year, among the most discarded items are dairy and produce. Donating healthy foods to your local food bank may not seem like a big contribution but can have an enormous impact on the mental and physical health of homeless individuals living food insecure. According to Feeding America, the items food banks need the most but receive the least are milk, fresh fruit, fresh or frozen vegetables, and lean meats.


The Oregon food bank has five main locations, click here to find a location near you to donate today.

Portland's Extreme Heat Wave

 

We all remember the record hitting temperatures during last summer. This wasn’t like any typical summer for us here in Portland. Sure, we have had hot summers, but this was different. It was a sweltering, suffocating heat. Walking outside was already difficult enough. Combine that with walking to your car only to find that you can’t sit in the vehicle for more than a couple of minutes without the air turned on. A heat so strong living everyday life became even more difficult.

Those who did not have air in their homes were struggling and suffocating just like those who were living on the street. The “Tower Fan'' and the “Oscillating Fan’ just aren't cutting it anymore. According to Grist.org “at least 71 people are confirmed or suspected to have died of heat related causes in Multnomah County.” According to the article this is the total number of deaths during the heat wave. However, Adam Mahoney states in his article that it is unclear how many of these deaths occurred among people who were experiencing homelessness.

While that was just one statistic. We don’t know if these 71 people were homeless or if they were at home simply lacking the ability to have air conditioning. Most Portland Homes were built when the climate was more adequate and less temperamental. However, due to climate change, we are finding that even most homes, apartment buildings, and townhouses, are without AC. The landlords were either unprepared for such heat, lacking the funds, or were simply negligent.

Now combine this horrible situation with someone who lacks shelter and is being forced to live on the street due to a plethora of reasons. They could have recently been struggling with paying their rent and have been evicted. They are now on the street and exposed to the elements. According to Mahoney, and his interview with Portland resident Scott Kerman ``If we are going to have colder winters and hotter summers then we have to be prepared for people who are unhoused or poorly housed continuing to die.” Where do the houseless go when we are reaching record temperatures in summer? Where do they go when the city is frozen over? Homeless shelters can only hold so many people. When there is no more room left, where are people left to turn?

These are questions we need to ask ourselves, and points we need to bring up to our city council. However, on the bright side there are some things being done to combat climate change and being houseless. Many of you around town have probably seen the little compounds of tiny homes being set up around town. The city is beginning to set up houseless villages with electricity and heating. The New York Post reported on this, “The homeless will be granted access to the camp if they’re given referrals from first responders, social or homeless services and park rangers.” Not only will these camps offer housing to those who are in need, but this simple action of setting up tiny home camps around town could possibly save lives.

In short people should not be dying because of heat waves, or the neglect of landlords unwilling to install central AC. The year is 2021 when living in a home we are past the age of having no AC. Having AC installed in homes as well as having space for the houseless to shelter from the elements are a much-needed necessity. The Houseless villages are a small step in the right direction. One can only hope that speaking up and getting out there can put us on the right track. It’s got to be better than sitting back and accepting the circumstances, right?

If you'd like to learn more about Portland's Heat Wave Please click here. If you'd like to donate or volunteer to help those in need at Portland Rescue Mission click here.

Cites Credited:

COVID left Portland’s homeless population in crisis mode. Then the heat wave hit

Portland to set up homeless villages with electricity and heating

Housing is Healthcare

 

Like many of the major cities across the country, Portland is experiencing a housing market imbalance resulting from an increased demand for housing unmatched by the supply. Currently, home ownership feels out of reach for all but the wealthiest. With an influx of wealthy families paying unprecedented amounts above home value, gentrification leads to a loss of affordable housing. The US Census Bureau reported that since 2010 Portland’s median rent has increased more than 57% and the median house price has skyrocketed from $242,000 to $539,000, growing at more than double the national rate. Consequently, lower income families, many of which are BIPOC households, are inequitably forced into displacement and homelessness. 

There are many forms of homelessness but whether an individual lives on the streets, in a shelter, or in a transitional housing program, homelessness creates dramatic economic and public health repercussions. 

Homeless individuals face tremendous barriers to health care. While they suffer from the same illnesses as others, they do so in higher rates, according to The National Alliance to End Homelessness, homeless individuals are up to six times more likely to have the illness. Lack of insurance, safety, and access to care results in thousands of deaths from preventable illnesses. Studies conducted by The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicate that homeless individuals typically have much shorter life expectancy, dying up to 30 years sooner than those with housing. Furthermore, homeless suffer higher rates of cancer, birth defects,  infant mortality, mental health disorders, asthma, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. 

The impact of homelessness is severe to all who suffer it, but the impact on children is detrimental and lifelong. Homeless children face constant daily hardships and harsh living conditions. The stress of poverty can delay a child’s brain development with long-term consequences on physical and mental health. According to The Family Housing Fund, children who are homeless are four times more likely to show major developmental delays or have a learning disability; lifelong effects that follow them into adulthood impacting their chances to succeed academically and financially. The social impact is clear, children are the future workers and leaders of our communities. Thus, there will be an economic impact if a large proportion have not had access to education, health, or a safe environment in which to grow and learn. 

Housing has a direct tie to health and in turn, the education and economic prosperity of our community. Familiarity with local programs can help us all to participate in the continued betterment of our community. 

Click here to learn more about Portland’s community efforts to increase health access for the homeless.